View Factor Orientation (or View factor or shape factor) plays an important role in radiation heat transfer. View factor is defined as, "fraction of radiation leaving surface 'i' and strike 'j' ". Summation Rule (View Factor) If there is are similar surfaces 'i' and 'j' , then: Blackbody Radiation Exchange Radiation Exchange between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray surfaces in an Enclosure 1. Opaque 2. Surfaces 3. Two surface enclosure Radiation Shield It is used to protect surfaces from radiation act like a reflective surface. References: Material from Class Lectures + Book named Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman + My knowledge. Photoshoped pics are developed. Some pics and GIF from Google. Videos from YouTube ( Engineering Sights ).
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Vapour and Combined Power Cycle
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Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for Vapour Power Cycles and is normally used for Electricity Generation.
The Rankine cycle consist of following steps:
1 ↝ 2 : Isentropic Compression in Pump.
2 ↝ 3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler.
3 ↝ 4 : IsentropicExpansion in Turbine.
4 ↝ 1 : Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in Condenser.
Energy Balance:
Since, all the devices which Rankine Cycle posses are steady flow devices, so the energy balance for Rankine cycle is:
》For Pump ( q = 0 ):
》For Boiler ( w = 0 ):
》For Turbine ( q = 0 ):
》For condenser ( w = 0 ):
The thermal efficiency of Rankine Cycle is:
How can we Increase the Efficiency of A Rankine Cycle:
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle can be increased:
Increasing the avg. temperate at which heat is added
Decreasing the avg. Temperature at which heat is rejected.
The above two objectives can be achieved by following three methods:
1. By Superheating the steam in the Boiler:
By superheating the fluid, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
2. By Increasing Boiler Pressure:
By increasing the boiler pressure, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
3. By Decreasing the Condenser Pressure:
By Decreasing the condenser pressure, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
Boilers
A fuel-burning apparatus or container used for heating water is called Boiler.
Types of Boilers:
There are many types of boilers but commonly used boilers in Industries are:
1. Fire-Tube Boilers:
In fire-tube boiler, flue gases or combustion gases are inside the tubes and water will be in the shell. They are big in size, require much time for heat transfer, require greater maintanences and are suitable for low pressure industrial applications.
2. Water-Tube Boilers:
In water-tube boiler, water is inside the tubes and hot gases will be in the shell. They are small in size, require not much time for heat transfer, require less maintanences and are suitable for high pressure industrial applications.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure:
It states that:
Total pressure of a cylinder is equal to the sum of pressure of individual gases.
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TAPING CORRECTIONS There are two types of corrections depending upon the type of errors in tape due to the different conditions. 1. Systematic Errors : Slope Erroneous tape length Temperature Tension Sag 2. Random Errors : Slope Alignment Marking & Plumbing Temperature Tension & Sag 1. Temperature Correction It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula, C t = 𝛼 (T m – T o )L Where, C t = the correction for temperature, in m. 𝛼 = the coefficient of thermal expansion. T m = the mean temperature during measurement. T o = the tempe...
Solid Mechanics OR Mechanics of Materials OR Strength of Materials: It is the study of mechanics of body i.e. forces and their effects on deformable solids under different loading conditions. Deformable Body Mechanics: It is the study of non-rigid solid structures which deform under load. Deformation/Distortion ⇾ change of shape and size OR have some relative displacement or rotation of particles. It happens when we apply combined load. Rigid Body Motion ⇾ Translation or rotation of particles but having constant distance between particles. Since deformation occur at particular load. Below this load, every body is considered as rigid body . Types of Load: Point Load ⇾ Load apply on a single point i.e. concentrated load. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) ⇾ Load remains uniform throughout an area of element like beam. Varying Distributed Load (VDL) ⇾ Load varies with length with constant rate. Moment ⇾ It measures the tend...
Strain Transformation Principal Strain and stresses can occur in the same directions. Material Properties Relation (Young, bulk Rigidity Modulus) ⇼ Hooke's Law General State of Strain ⇼ Є X , Є Y , Є Z and ૪ X , ૪ Y , ૪ Z . Stress (normal or shear)/ Strain (normal or shear) ⇼ vary with element orientation. Transformation equations for Plane strain derived from: Interpretation of Experimental measurements Represent in graphical form for plane strain (Mohr's Circle). Geometry and independent of material properties. Mohr's Circle It is defined as., " A graphical method for determining normal and shear Shear stresses without using the stress transformation equations " . While considering the circle CCW ⇼ Shear strain positive upward & Normal strain positive towards right. The construction of Mohr's circle (with normal and shear stresses are known) is quite easy which include following steps: Draw a set o...
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