View Factor Orientation (or View factor or shape factor) plays an important role in radiation heat transfer. View factor is defined as, "fraction of radiation leaving surface 'i' and strike 'j' ". Summation Rule (View Factor) If there is are similar surfaces 'i' and 'j' , then: Blackbody Radiation Exchange Radiation Exchange between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray surfaces in an Enclosure 1. Opaque 2. Surfaces 3. Two surface enclosure Radiation Shield It is used to protect surfaces from radiation act like a reflective surface. References: Material from Class Lectures + Book named Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman + My knowledge. Photoshoped pics are developed. Some pics and GIF from Google. Videos from YouTube ( Engineering Sights ).
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Vapour and Combined Power Cycle
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Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for Vapour Power Cycles and is normally used for Electricity Generation.
The Rankine cycle consist of following steps:
1 ↝ 2 : Isentropic Compression in Pump.
2 ↝ 3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler.
3 ↝ 4 : IsentropicExpansion in Turbine.
4 ↝ 1 : Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in Condenser.
Energy Balance:
Since, all the devices which Rankine Cycle posses are steady flow devices, so the energy balance for Rankine cycle is:
》For Pump ( q = 0 ):
》For Boiler ( w = 0 ):
》For Turbine ( q = 0 ):
》For condenser ( w = 0 ):
The thermal efficiency of Rankine Cycle is:
How can we Increase the Efficiency of A Rankine Cycle:
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle can be increased:
Increasing the avg. temperate at which heat is added
Decreasing the avg. Temperature at which heat is rejected.
The above two objectives can be achieved by following three methods:
1. By Superheating the steam in the Boiler:
By superheating the fluid, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
2. By Increasing Boiler Pressure:
By increasing the boiler pressure, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
3. By Decreasing the Condenser Pressure:
By Decreasing the condenser pressure, the area W2 is added, so increase its efficiency.
Boilers
A fuel-burning apparatus or container used for heating water is called Boiler.
Types of Boilers:
There are many types of boilers but commonly used boilers in Industries are:
1. Fire-Tube Boilers:
In fire-tube boiler, flue gases or combustion gases are inside the tubes and water will be in the shell. They are big in size, require much time for heat transfer, require greater maintanences and are suitable for low pressure industrial applications.
2. Water-Tube Boilers:
In water-tube boiler, water is inside the tubes and hot gases will be in the shell. They are small in size, require not much time for heat transfer, require less maintanences and are suitable for high pressure industrial applications.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure:
It states that:
Total pressure of a cylinder is equal to the sum of pressure of individual gases.
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Projection: The term Projection is defined as: Presentation of an image or an object on a surface. The principles used to graphically represent 3-D objects and structures on 2-D media and it based on two variables: Line of Sight. Plane of Projection. Line of Sight & Plane of Projection: Line of sight is divided into 2 types: Parallel Projection Converging Projection & A plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by the lines of sight is projected. Orthographic Projection: When the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The lines pf sight of the observer create a view on the screen. The screen is referred to as the Plane of Projection (POP). The lines of sight are called Projection lines or projectors. Rules of Orthographic Projection: Edges that are parallel to a plane of projection appear as lines. Edges that are inclined to a plan
TAPING CORRECTIONS There are two types of corrections depending upon the type of errors in tape due to the different conditions. 1. Systematic Errors : Slope Erroneous tape length Temperature Tension Sag 2. Random Errors : Slope Alignment Marking & Plumbing Temperature Tension & Sag 1. Temperature Correction It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula, C t = 𝛼 (T m – T o )L Where, C t = the correction for temperature, in m. 𝛼 = the coefficient of thermal expansion. T m = the mean temperature during measurement. T o = the temperature at which the tape is standardized. L = the measure length in m. For Foot Unit : C t = 6.45×10^-6 (T m – 68 )L For Metric Unit : C t = 1.16
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