View Factor Orientation (or View factor or shape factor) plays an important role in radiation heat transfer. View factor is defined as, "fraction of radiation leaving surface 'i' and strike 'j' ". Summation Rule (View Factor) If there is are similar surfaces 'i' and 'j' , then: Blackbody Radiation Exchange Radiation Exchange between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray surfaces in an Enclosure 1. Opaque 2. Surfaces 3. Two surface enclosure Radiation Shield It is used to protect surfaces from radiation act like a reflective surface. References: Material from Class Lectures + Book named Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman + My knowledge. Photoshoped pics are developed. Some pics and GIF from Google. Videos from YouTube ( Engineering Sights ).
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Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology
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Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is defined as, "a combustion technology used to burn solid or low grade fuels".
Fuel particles are suspended in a hot bed of particulate materials (like ash, sand, limestone).
Since this allows coal plants to burn at cooler temperatures, less NOx is also emitted.
We have large coal reservoirs but it has high Sulphur content ↣ to deal with this issue, we have Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology.
This technology is used because:
Sulphur emission decreases by Lime.
NOx emission decreases by decrease in temperature.
Circulating Type Fluidized Bed Boiler
It is defined as, "a boiler which works on the fluidized bed combustion technology for producing heat". There are two types of Circulating Type Fluidized Bed (CFB) Boiler:
Circulating Type ↣ Particle velocity ranges between 5 - 10 m/s.
Bubbling Type ↣ Particle velocity ranges between 1 - 3 m/s.
Construction
Bed Drain Tube ↣ used to remove ash.
Grid Plate ↣ where combustion occurs.
Submerged Tube Bank ↣ for producing steam.
Plenum Chamber ↣ used for storing air.
Working
Air from fan enters furnace↣ pass through bed of finely divided particles (sand) ↣ air velocity increases, sand particles vibrate (which heat air)↣ desired fuel is added (first secondary then primary fuel is added) ↣ when self sustained temperature of coal is added, we cut primary fuel ↣ then coal is added ↣ initial combustion starts ↣ unburned coal particles leaves furnace ↣ Primary cyclone capturing then back into furnace.
Loop Seals ↣ maintains the pressure balance between the furnace and exit of the separators allowing the solid to flow back into the furnace.
High Performance particle steam heat exchanger ↣ Interax which extracts high temperature heat from hot particles in CFB to produce high temperature superheated steam.
Ques: What does fluidized means?
Ans: When air (or gas) is passed through finely divided bed of solid particles (sand), the particle remain undisturbed at low velocity. As velocity increase, particles start to vibrate remain suspended in air stream.
Fluidized combustion ↣ (840 - 950)℃ much lower than ash fusion temperature, ash and NOx reduces.
Ash can be used as Cement Raw Material.
Advantages
Very low quality fuel is used. Like coal, biomass, tyres).
Coal is used in coarse phase (not in powdered form).
Hydrographic Survey Hydrography is the science which determines the physical features and the navigable portions of the Earth's surface adjoining coastal areas. Surveyors study bodies of water to see what the floor looks like. Techniques and Instruments used in Hydrographic Survey : Many instruments are used in hydrographic survey like multibeam sonars, LIDAR, multibeam echo sounders(MBES), global positioning system (GPS), laser scanners etc. Among these instruments some are discussed ahead which are mostly used. 1. Light Detection and Ranging: LIDAR is used to measure the elevation or the depths of water bodies by analyzing the reflection of laser light off an object or seafloor. Bathymetric LIDAR is used to determine is used to determine the depths of water bodies by measuring the time delay between the pulse of transmission and its return signals. 2.Multibeam Sonars: Multibeam echo sounders(MBES) or sonar systems transmit sound energy which strike seafloor a
TAPING CORRECTIONS There are two types of corrections depending upon the type of errors in tape due to the different conditions. 1. Systematic Errors : Slope Erroneous tape length Temperature Tension Sag 2. Random Errors : Slope Alignment Marking & Plumbing Temperature Tension & Sag 1. Temperature Correction It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula, C t = 𝛼 (T m – T o )L Where, C t = the correction for temperature, in m. 𝛼 = the coefficient of thermal expansion. T m = the mean temperature during measurement. T o = the temperature at which the tape is standardized. L = the measure length in m. For Foot Unit : C t = 6.45×10^-6 (T m – 68 )L For Metric Unit : C t = 1.16
Rankine Cycle Rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for Vapour Power Cycles and is normally used for Electricity Generation. The Rankine cycle consist of following steps: 1 ↝ 2 : Isentropic Compression in Pump. 2 ↝ 3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler. 3 ↝ 4 : IsentropicExpansion in Turbine. 4 ↝ 1 : Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in Condenser. Energy Balance: Since, all the devices which Rankine Cycle posses are steady flow devices, so the energy balance for Rankine cycle is: 》For Pump ( q = 0 ): 》For Boiler ( w = 0 ): 》For Turbine ( q = 0 ): 》For condenser ( w = 0 ): The thermal efficiency of Rankine Cycle is: How can we Increase the Efficiency of A Rankine Cycle: The efficiency of a Rankine cycle can be increased: Increasing the avg. temperate at which heat is added Decreasing the avg. Temperature at which heat is rejected. The above two objectives can be achieved by following three methods: 1. By
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