View Factor Orientation (or View factor or shape factor) plays an important role in radiation heat transfer. View factor is defined as, "fraction of radiation leaving surface 'i' and strike 'j' ". Summation Rule (View Factor) If there is are similar surfaces 'i' and 'j' , then: Blackbody Radiation Exchange Radiation Exchange between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray surfaces in an Enclosure 1. Opaque 2. Surfaces 3. Two surface enclosure Radiation Shield It is used to protect surfaces from radiation act like a reflective surface. References: Material from Class Lectures + Book named Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman + My knowledge. Photoshoped pics are developed. Some pics and GIF from Google. Videos from YouTube ( Engineering Sights ).
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Regeneration of Steam
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Steam Regeneration
It is defined as, "The heating of feed water during its way to the steam boiler by extracting the steam (i.e. tapping from hot portion of cycle) from various points of turbine".
Regenerator OR Feed Water Heater ↹ device used for the purpose of regeneration.
Around 5-8 FWH in practical powerplant (on must be Open type).
There are two types of Feed Water Heater:
Open Type Feed Water Heater
Closed Type Feed Water Heater
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Two Open Type FWH
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam generating boiler.
Reduces plant operating costs
Helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.
Closed Type Feed Water Heater
Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat exchangers where the feedwater passes throughout the tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam.
No physical mixing of steam and water (closed system).
Extracted steam (from Turbine) transfers energy to FW and condensed.
Condensation results in filling of container with water hinders (heat transfer) and lock incoming steam. To remove condensate, either:
Move it to high pressure region using pumps
Release it to condenser
With respect to Efficiency,
Cascaded Backward (Energy decrease to Drain) <Pumped Forward (Energy increase due to Pump).
Dead State ↹ State at which system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment.
Exergy or Availability ↹ useful work potential of the system at the specified
state. We need exergy destruction to be minimum.
Temperature Terminal Difference (TTD) ↹ Difference of temperature between the bled steam entering FWH and the exit temperature of sub-cooled water in pipes.
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed Type Feed Water Heater with Drains Cascaded Backwards
Closed type FWH's are mostly used for both before and after deaerator heater (has desuperheater drain cooling sections in higher pressure stages).
Steam is generated from boiler, hit turbine blades extracted from 2 and 3.
Extracted heat transfer its energy contents to water running through the pipe channels of (e.g. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger).
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed Type Feed Water Heater with Drains Pumped Forward
One closed FWH with drain pumped forward ↹ used as lowest pressure heater to pump all accumulating drains back into FW line.
Ques: Why we take actual entropy of a point let say '2a' towards increasing trend?
Ans: According to Law of Increase of Entropy, "the entropy of the system either remains constant or it increases (in adiabatic process)".
For reversible process ↹ entropy of system remains constant.
Ques: What is the effect of heat source fluid type?
Ans: Specific capacity of water = 4.2 KJ / kg . ℃ and air = 1.005 KJ / kg . ℃. Which means it is difficult to change the temperature of water.
Ques: Is superheating of fluid beneficial?
Ans: Consider 2 scenarios:
In case of liquid (Higher Cp) i.e. less temperature difference ↹ No superheating (a-1).
In case of air (lower Cp) i.e. larger temperature difference ↹ superheating is beneficial (a-1).
Gives higher efficiencies (more heat is transferred)
Lesser irreversibilities due to less temp. difference.
Ques: What are the parts of Feed Water Heater?
Ans: There are three parts, described below:
De-superheating Zone ↹ Which convert superheated steam to saturated vapor.
Condensing Zone ↹ Which convert Sat. vapor into Saturated Liquid.
Sub-cooling Zone ↹ If Further heat is required (Saturated liquid to subcooled liquid).
TAPING CORRECTIONS There are two types of corrections depending upon the type of errors in tape due to the different conditions. 1. Systematic Errors : Slope Erroneous tape length Temperature Tension Sag 2. Random Errors : Slope Alignment Marking & Plumbing Temperature Tension & Sag 1. Temperature Correction It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula, C t = 𝛼 (T m – T o )L Where, C t = the correction for temperature, in m. 𝛼 = the coefficient of thermal expansion. T m = the mean temperature during measurement. T o = the tempe...
Projection: The term Projection is defined as: Presentation of an image or an object on a surface. The principles used to graphically represent 3-D objects and structures on 2-D media and it based on two variables: Line of Sight. Plane of Projection. Line of Sight & Plane of Projection: Line of sight is divided into 2 types: Parallel Projection Converging Projection & A plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by the lines of sight is projected. Orthographic Projection: When the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The lines pf sight of the observer create a view on the screen. The screen is referred to as the Plane of Projection (POP). The lines of sight are called Projection lines or projectors. Rules of Orthographic Projection: Edges that are parallel to a plane of projection appear as lines. Edges that are incl...
Diffusion It is defined as, " The transportation of one atom from one state into other state " . Used for hardening of surfaces like die parts, gear, bolt, machine element. Hardening can be done using Temperature-Heat treatment ( diffusion couple ). There are two types of diffusion: Inter-diffusion ↔ in which atoms tend to migrate from region of high concentration to low concentration . Self-diffusion ↔ in which atoms migrate within a solid. Diffusion Mechanism There can be two conditions of moving atoms Empty spaces between adjacent sites. Atoms have sufficient energy to break bond with neighbors atoms which cause lattice distortion during displacement. If we rise temperature, small fractions of atoms is capable of diffusive motion (which cause lattice distortion). Types of Diffusion 1. Vacancy Diffusion It is defined as, " interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position to the adjacent vacant lattice site " . Extent of vacancy diffusion is a function...
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