View Factor Orientation (or View factor or shape factor) plays an important role in radiation heat transfer. View factor is defined as, "fraction of radiation leaving surface 'i' and strike 'j' ". Summation Rule (View Factor) If there is are similar surfaces 'i' and 'j' , then: Blackbody Radiation Exchange Radiation Exchange between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray surfaces in an Enclosure 1. Opaque 2. Surfaces 3. Two surface enclosure Radiation Shield It is used to protect surfaces from radiation act like a reflective surface. References: Material from Class Lectures + Book named Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman + My knowledge. Photoshoped pics are developed. Some pics and GIF from Google. Videos from YouTube ( Engineering Sights ).
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Regeneration of Steam
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Steam Regeneration
It is defined as, "The heating of feed water during its way to the steam boiler by extracting the steam (i.e. tapping from hot portion of cycle) from various points of turbine".
Regenerator OR Feed Water Heater ↹ device used for the purpose of regeneration.
Around 5-8 FWH in practical powerplant (on must be Open type).
There are two types of Feed Water Heater:
Open Type Feed Water Heater
Closed Type Feed Water Heater
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Two Open Type FWH
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam generating boiler.
Reduces plant operating costs
Helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.
Closed Type Feed Water Heater
Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat exchangers where the feedwater passes throughout the tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam.
No physical mixing of steam and water (closed system).
Extracted steam (from Turbine) transfers energy to FW and condensed.
Condensation results in filling of container with water hinders (heat transfer) and lock incoming steam. To remove condensate, either:
Move it to high pressure region using pumps
Release it to condenser
With respect to Efficiency,
Cascaded Backward (Energy decrease to Drain) <Pumped Forward (Energy increase due to Pump).
Dead State ↹ State at which system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment.
Exergy or Availability ↹ useful work potential of the system at the specified
state. We need exergy destruction to be minimum.
Temperature Terminal Difference (TTD) ↹ Difference of temperature between the bled steam entering FWH and the exit temperature of sub-cooled water in pipes.
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed Type Feed Water Heater with Drains Cascaded Backwards
Closed type FWH's are mostly used for both before and after deaerator heater (has desuperheater drain cooling sections in higher pressure stages).
Steam is generated from boiler, hit turbine blades extracted from 2 and 3.
Extracted heat transfer its energy contents to water running through the pipe channels of (e.g. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger).
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed Type Feed Water Heater with Drains Pumped Forward
One closed FWH with drain pumped forward ↹ used as lowest pressure heater to pump all accumulating drains back into FW line.
Ques: Why we take actual entropy of a point let say '2a' towards increasing trend?
Ans: According to Law of Increase of Entropy, "the entropy of the system either remains constant or it increases (in adiabatic process)".
For reversible process ↹ entropy of system remains constant.
Ques: What is the effect of heat source fluid type?
Ans: Specific capacity of water = 4.2 KJ / kg . ℃ and air = 1.005 KJ / kg . ℃. Which means it is difficult to change the temperature of water.
Ques: Is superheating of fluid beneficial?
Ans: Consider 2 scenarios:
In case of liquid (Higher Cp) i.e. less temperature difference ↹ No superheating (a-1).
In case of air (lower Cp) i.e. larger temperature difference ↹ superheating is beneficial (a-1).
Gives higher efficiencies (more heat is transferred)
Lesser irreversibilities due to less temp. difference.
Ques: What are the parts of Feed Water Heater?
Ans: There are three parts, described below:
De-superheating Zone ↹ Which convert superheated steam to saturated vapor.
Condensing Zone ↹ Which convert Sat. vapor into Saturated Liquid.
Sub-cooling Zone ↹ If Further heat is required (Saturated liquid to subcooled liquid).
TAPING CORRECTIONS There are two types of corrections depending upon the type of errors in tape due to the different conditions. 1. Systematic Errors : Slope Erroneous tape length Temperature Tension Sag 2. Random Errors : Slope Alignment Marking & Plumbing Temperature Tension & Sag 1. Temperature Correction It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula, C t = 𝛼 (T m – T o )L Where, C t = the correction for temperature, in m. 𝛼 = the coefficient of thermal expansion. T m = the mean temperature during measurement. T o = the tempe...
Solid Mechanics OR Mechanics of Materials OR Strength of Materials: It is the study of mechanics of body i.e. forces and their effects on deformable solids under different loading conditions. Deformable Body Mechanics: It is the study of non-rigid solid structures which deform under load. Deformation/Distortion ⇾ change of shape and size OR have some relative displacement or rotation of particles. It happens when we apply combined load. Rigid Body Motion ⇾ Translation or rotation of particles but having constant distance between particles. Since deformation occur at particular load. Below this load, every body is considered as rigid body . Types of Load: Point Load ⇾ Load apply on a single point i.e. concentrated load. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) ⇾ Load remains uniform throughout an area of element like beam. Varying Distributed Load (VDL) ⇾ Load varies with length with constant rate. Moment ⇾ It measures the tend...
Strain Transformation Principal Strain and stresses can occur in the same directions. Material Properties Relation (Young, bulk Rigidity Modulus) ⇼ Hooke's Law General State of Strain ⇼ Є X , Є Y , Є Z and ૪ X , ૪ Y , ૪ Z . Stress (normal or shear)/ Strain (normal or shear) ⇼ vary with element orientation. Transformation equations for Plane strain derived from: Interpretation of Experimental measurements Represent in graphical form for plane strain (Mohr's Circle). Geometry and independent of material properties. Mohr's Circle It is defined as., " A graphical method for determining normal and shear Shear stresses without using the stress transformation equations " . While considering the circle CCW ⇼ Shear strain positive upward & Normal strain positive towards right. The construction of Mohr's circle (with normal and shear stresses are known) is quite easy which include following steps: Draw a set o...
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